MI 15 – 01 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND NEGOTIATION SKILLS

Q. 1. Discuss the various types of conflicts that may arise in any organization.

Ans. Conflict can be studied, generally, under the following heads:

Intra Individual Conflict:

Intra Personal conflict is internal to the person and is probably the most difficult type of conflict to analyze. To begin with, all of us have needs. These needs form the basis for our behavior at work, at home, at play and in every activity we pursue. Everything we do is directed at satisfying some need. Humans are, to put it in simple terms, goal directed. Need satisfaction spurs people on; non-satisfaction of needs frustrates people and leads to behavior that negatively affects job performance. Organizations are basically formed for the purpose of meeting humanistic and economic needs of individual. However, the nature of formal organization is such that it tends to create innumerable problems for individuals working therein. The goals of organizational life are in direct conflict with the individuals goals of workers causing them to be frustrated, alienated and threatened. In the words of Davis, “Organizations are systems of medieval torture which suppress and subjugate their victim – the individual. He lives in helpless conformity, stripped off his self-esteem in a phony and artificial environment. There is no challenge for psychological fulfillment”. Most of the people working in organizations are like inert instruments, mere appendages in the production process. There is little chance to be creative. As organizations grow, they tend to be less responsive to the needs of individuals. In addition to loss of freedom the individual is stripped off his identity also. The incongruity model developed by Chris Argyris postulates that there is a lack of congruity between the needs of healthy individuals and the demands of the organization.

The individual is caught in the web of his own making. He faces a conflict within himself. A smooth progression of the need-drive-goal motivational cycle does not occur. He is confronted with many puzzling questions: Whether to tolerate the inhuman treatment meted out daily by the boss? Whether to manipulate the figures to curry favor with the boss and prosper? To do or not to do? Basically interpersonal conflict can be related to two things: conflict arising due to divergent goals, or conflict arising from out of multiple roles to be played daily.

Goal Conflict

Goal conflict occurs when a goal that an individual is attempting to achieve has both positive and negative features or when two or more competing goals exists. Generally three separate types of goal conflicts are identified:

i. Approach-approach conflict: A person wants two positive situations but can have only one. The person might be torn between lucrative jobs (mutually exclusive goals).

ii. Approach-avoidance conflict: In this form of goal conflict the person attempts to achieve a goal that has both positive and negative aspects. A Delhi University teacher may be offered an excellent job in a bad location. In pursuing a challenging goal like obtaining first rank in the University, many students must make personal sacrifices (time, energy, away from entertainment etc.).

iii. Avoidance-avoidance conflict: This type of conflict can be easily resolved because a person faced with two negative goals may not choose either of them and may simply leave the situation. This type of conflict may also exist when the person does not have the opportunity to leave. For example, a worker may dislike his present job, but the alternative of leaving and looking for another job may be even less attractive.

Role Conflict

A role is a set of expectations people have about the behavior of a person in a position. It is an expected mode of behavior. An individual occupies many different positions in a variety of organizations and performs multiple roles.

Role conflict is the result of divergent role expectations. It exists when the expectations of a job are mutually different or opposite and the individual cannot meet one expectation without rejecting the other. For Example, a supervisor, the man n the middle, is a bumping post, he has to take it from both ends. He has to perform strikingly different roles He is both a boss and a subordinate. As a part of the management team he should have the corresponding values and attitudes. As a member from the workers’ group he should have their values and attitudes. He is expected to wear both the hats gracefully. Role conflict arises because when role are so conflicting supervisors do not know which set of expectations they should follow. Again, managers occupying boundary positions, such as marketing executives who have wide contacts with outsiders, work under role conflict. Some of their customers’ expectations on product quality, delivery time and credit term may be inconsistent with company policies. This type of conflict is known as intra-role conflict. Several other forms of role conflict may be noted.

1. Person-role conflict: This conflict arises when the expected behavior is incompatible with a person’s own basic values and attitudes. For example, a politician asks one of his supporters to play dirty tricks on an opponent, and the supporter refuses on moral grounds.
2. Inter-role conflict: This type of conflict is the result of facing multiple roles. It occurs because individuals simultaneously perform many roles, which conflict with each other. Many professors who try to evaluate the performance of students (judge role) may find it uncomfortable to fulfill the demands of other roles like the role of a trainer, a developer or a teacher.
3. Inter-sender role conflict: If a building contractor asks a carpenter to do something that is different from the instructions of the architect, the municipal building codes or his union’s work rules, that is called inter-sender role conflict.

Interpersonal Conflict

Interpersonal conflict involves two or more individuals rather than one individual. Two boys fighting for one cinema ticket, two men vying for one woman, two managers competing for the same promotion, two executives maneuvering for a larger share of corporate capital – examples of conflict between individuals are legion and quite familiar. Such conflict situations are made-up of at least two individuals who hold polarized points of view, who are somewhat intolerant of ambiguities, who ignore delicate shades of grey, and who are quick to jump to conclusions.

Inter-group Conflict

Inter-group conflicts over authority, jurisdiction and resources are exceedingly common. Every group is in at least partial conflict with every other group it interacts with. Most of the departments in the organization compete for the allocation of scarce resources and power. They differ in goals, work activities, power and prestige. The seeds of inter-group conflict are sown in these differences.

Inter-Organizational Conflict

The phenomena in inter-organizational conflict are much the same as those arising within an organization. The bases of inter-organizational conflicts are essentially the same as the bases of inter-group conflict. Most commonly cited reasons for inter-organizational conflicts like incompatible objectives, conflicts over status, prestige and money are present in inter-organizational conflict also. As pointed out by March and Simon, “many of the phenomena of inter-group conflict within the organization are almost indistinguishable of the phenomena that we might consider under inter-organizational conflict. The distinction between internal and external relations for an organization is a cloudy one.” In other words, inter-organizational conflict is more extensive, more diffuse than the conflict among persons or groups.

Intra-Organizational Conflict

The wellsprings of conflict in an organization are many. Mainly three kinds of internal strains can be listed.

· Horizontal Conflict: That arises between employees or departments at the same level in an organization. To reach goals, each department may try to bulldoze others, snatch opportunities from others, grab resources illegally, and even frustrate the efforts of others so that it can emerge as a clear winner. These have already been explained earlier.

· Vertical Conflict: Between users in an organization is another type of situation that organizations commonly encounter.

There are primarily three reasons for vertical conflicts:

1. Inadequate communication between
2. Conflict arises essentially from differences of interests between position holders occupying different status in the organizational hierarchy, and
3. A distinct lack of shared perceptions and attitudes among members in various levels. Vertical conflicts arise because superiors attempt to control subordinates and subordinates tend to resist forcing the superior to increase the dosage of impersonal roles to exact obedience and gain control. Impersonal rules rob the subordinate of the freedom of action enjoyed hitherto and as a result, “he perceives himself to be threatened by and in conflict with his superiors, who are attempting to decrease his autonomy”

Line and Staff Conflict

Controversy and conflict are inherent in the concept of line and staff. It is not an easy task to divide and distribute expertise, authority and roles in equitable quantities between the line generalists and staff specialists. The concept authorizes the splitting of various functions into two categories: hierarchical and non-hierarchical, that is, creation of low status and high status persons. The splitting of functions into hierarchical and non-hierarchical levels and the creation of low status and high status positions creates a discrepancy between expected and actual authority, leading to resentment and frustration to all the parties involved. Line managers look upon staff specialists as “unnecessary impediments in the otherwise simple and efficient administration of product operations”. Moreover, the staff specialist is cast in the role of a gatekeeper relative to the line manager and can often monitor information, resources and rewards flowing to him. To make confusion more confounded, line and staff members have different time horizons, objectives and interpersonal orientations and approaches to organizational problems. For example Dalton found that the staff employees who were usually younger, had an upper level of education and came from different social backgrounds than line employees. These different personal characteristics, which are frequently associated with different values and beliefs, often exacerbate conflicts between line and staff. The causes of conflict between line and staff are captured.

Q. 2. Explain the various strategies of conflict management.

Ans. Conflict can produce functional as well as dysfunctional effects. If allowed to continue, it will have a disruptive influence over the entire organization procures will be wasted, people go off the track, targets may be missed and the entire organization may have to pay for such costly lapses in the long run. There are, therefore, very strong reasons for attempting to resolve conflicts in a rapid and effective manner. Fortunately, a number of methods are used for achieving this goal that seems to exist. These approaches to conflict management include the following:

Ignoring the conflict, if the conflict is not too severe and the consequences are not very serious, managers tend to ignore it and pretend that it does not exist. Some managers think conflicts speak badly about an organization, so they ignore the conflict and hope it wills eventually resources itself. Because the sources of conflict are neither identified nor resolved, this strategy fails to put out the fire in time. Eventually, the situation may go from bad to worse.

· Physical Separation: if the warring factions or parties are physically separated, the likelihood of open hostility and aggression is reduced. Parties, however, may continue to indulge in sabotage and occasional acts of aggression unless the sources of conflict are eliminated. Physical separation may work when the two groups are not required to interact while achieving targets. If they need to interact, however, separation may not solve the issue.

· Withdrawal: Another way may be to withdraw from a conflict when it takes place. The withdrawal may be from a situation (fighting for resources, for promotion etc.) or from a relationship with the other group (one party may sever connection with the other as in the case of Proctor and Gamble and Godrej Soaps Ltd.).

· Dominance: The simplest conceivable conflict solution is elimination of the other party-to force opponents to flee and give up the fight, or slay them. Quite often managers use positional authority to fire a lower ranking subordinate they consider to be a troublemaker. Conflicting parties are told to maintain a calm composure, an appearance of grace and drop their fight and get on with the job. Positional authority enables a manager to serve as a situational authority, enables a manager to serve as a situational authority, enables a manager to serve as a ‘conflict sponge’ to absorb the antagonistic feelings of the disputants. Sometimes, managers try to alleviate conflict through “physical separation”. Groups are not allowed to interact with each other. Separation helps in attaining a temporary solution and provides enough time for more fundamental conflict resolution afterwards. It has the distinct advantage of preventing more damage from being done and of preventing the creation of further rationale for fighting. Individuals in an organization, with rare exception, recognize and accept the authority of their superiors as an acceptable way of resolving conflicts. Although they may not be in agreement with these decisions, they abide by them. Stagner, after conducting research on executive decision-making in major corporations in America, found the (power of) chief executive to be the most widely employed arbiter of disagreement. However, it is always not possible to effectively resolve interdepartmental conflicts through the use of positional authority. The ‘dominance approach’ does little to prevent recurrence of conflict in a more violent form later on.

· Appeals procedures: A conventional method of resolving disputes in an organization is for the people in disagreement to ask a higher authority to help them arrive at a solution by resolving the problem satisfactorily. A formal procedure for redressing grievances is demanded through an appeal made to “one’s boss’s boss”. For if the faculty members could not decide on the allocation of work load, they may refer their disagreement to the principal of the college for a final, binding decision.

· Compromise: This is a traditional way of putting out fires. Here, there is no clean winner or loser and the decision arrived at is probably not ideal for either group. For example the management may offer to increase the wages by percent, while the union may be seeking 8 percent. A compromise figure of 6 percent may result in a reasonable settlement of the conflict. Compromise can be used very effectively when the goal sought (e.g. money) can be divided equitably. If this is not possible one group should be prepared to give up something of value as concession. Compromise may also involve third-party interventions as well as total group or representative negotiating and voting.

Conflict Management strategy	Type of strategy	Appropriate situations
Ignoring the conflict	Avoidance	When the issue is trivial When the issue is symptomatic of more basic, pressing problems.
Imposing a solution	Avoidance	When quick, decisive action is needed. When unpopular decisions need to be made and consensus among them appears very unlikely.
Smoothing	Defusion	As a stopgap measure to let cool down and regain perspective. When the conflict is over non-work issues.
Appealing to super ordinate goals	Defusion	When there is a mutually important goal that neither group can achieve without the co-operation of the other. When the survival of success of the overall organization is in jeopardy.
Bargaining	Containment	When the two parties are of relatively equal power. When there are several acceptable, alternative solutions that both parties would be willing to consider.
Structuring the interaction	Containment	When previous attempts to openly discuss conflict issues led to conflict escalation rather than to problem solution. When a respected third party is available to provide some structure and could serve as a mediator.
Integrative problem solving	Containment	When there is a minimum level of trust between groups and there is no time pressure for a quick solution. When the organization can benefit from merging the differing perspectives and insights of the groups in making key decisions
Redesigning the organization	Confrontation	When the sources of conflict come from the coordination of work. When the work can be easily divided into clear project responsibilities (self-contained work groups), or when activities require a lot of interdepartmental co-ordination over time (lateral relations).

Q. 3. Write note on the conflict stimulation techniques.

Ans. Considering the amount of controversy surrounding the term ‘conflict’, the whole notion of ‘conflict stimulation’ is often difficult to accept without reservation. The language of conflict stimulation is hard to digest and this partly explains the dearth of ideas on conflict stimulation techniques. Although writers often discuss ways of reducing conflict relatively few write about the stimulation strategies. Robbins had offered certain guidelines in this direction.

a. Communication: Managers can manipulate messages in such ways as to stimulate conflict. Ambiguous or threatening messages encourage conflict. Information that a plant will close, that a department is to be wiped out or that a lay off is certain can reduce apathy, force members to confront their differences, stimulate new ideas and force re-evaluation of current practices etc. Sometimes, a manager can also redirect messages and alter channels to encourage conflict. Intelligently planted rumours in the informal channels can also serve a useful purpose.

b. Bringing in outsiders: A commonly used method of ‘shaking up’ a stagnant unit organization is to bring in people whose back-grounds, attitudes, values and managerial style vary significantly from the prevalent norms. Introduction of heterogeneous people into the organization helps in disturbing the status qno (for example suggesting innovative ideas, offering divergent opinions, demonstrating originally, etc.).

c. Restructure the organization: Changing the structure of an organization is an excellent way of creating conflict. Breaking up old work groups and departments and re-organizing them so that they have new entrants or responsibilities will create uncertainties that call for readjustments immediately. Conflict that develops during this period may ultimately lead to improved methods of operation as members try to adjust to new circumstances.

d. Encouraging Competition: The use of bonuses, incentive pay and awards for excellent performance will stimulate competition. Such incentives, when administered properly, foster a competitive spirit among individuals and groups. Conflict will be productive as one-group struggles hard to out do the other.

Q. 4. Narrate the process of conflict.

Ans. According to Pondy, conflict can be more readily understood if it is considered as dynamic process. “Process” here indicates a series of events. Each conflict is made up of a sequence of interlocking conflict episodes, as shown in the figure.

i. The aftermath of the preceding conflict episodes sets the stage for those that follow. Past experience with the antagonistic party sets expectations and to a certain extent determines the response to new episodes.

ii. Latent conflict refers to the underlying conditions for conflict. Scarcity of resources, the drive for autonomy versus the need for control and divergence of personal or unit goal are examples of such underlying conditions. Environmental effects also influence latent conflict. For example, an organization in a declining industry faces more stressful conditions than an organization in a stable or growing industry.

iii. Perceived conflict occurs with the awareness of the existence of the latent conditions Divergent goal do not create conflict until someone notices that they are divergent. Perceived conflict is still incipient, when the parties have not yet responded effectively. Two mechanisms operate to keep latent conflict from being perceived. First, suppression occurs when conflict is only mildly threatening and not “worth” dealing with. Second, the attention-focus mechanism represents organizational and individual priorities. They may be more conflicts than can be dealt with easily, so the attention is focused on only a few. Perceived conflict does not always become felt conflict. People may disagree over an issue but feel they may no anxiety or animosity. Felt conflict reaches the level of experience. At least some of the parties respond effectively, perhaps through anxiety, frustration, or feelings of hostility.

iv. Manifest conflict is expressed through behavior. The expression may be as low key as apathy or as dramatic as over hostility or aggression. Whether perceived conflicts and felt conflicts become manifest conflict depends partly on the availability of resolution mechanisms such as administrative review procedures or appeal processes. If the disagreement is strategic in nature, especially involving unit goals, then conflict is likely.

v. The conflict aftermath then becomes an environmental factor for the next conflict episode. If the conflict is resolved, the parties may move towards a co-operative relationship. If not, the conflict may expand to previously uninvolved parties or issues. Pondy suggests that the origins of organizational conflicts are informational, political functional and social. Conflict can occur in any of the subsets while affecting and being affected by conflict in the other subsets.